The Mosaics of Venice: Building art or Building a Nation?
“Tell me where is fancy bred, or in the heart or in the head?”
--William Shakespeare, “The Merchant of Venice”
Upon entering the chapels of the Basilica di San Marco in Venice, an intuitive first action would be to simply look up. The enveloping sense of warmth, reverence, and sacredness from shimmering golden mosaic tiles draws the eye immediately to the looming domes and leads the visitor mesmerizingly on a journey throughout the chapels. The journey starts in the heart, by appealing to one’s sense of beauty and amazement, and ends in the head, as one ponders the underlying political motives of these magnificent works of art. Along the journey one finds the Cappella di San Clemente, the chapel to the south of the main presbytery in the Basilica di San Mark. This chapel, also known for being the Doge’s chapel, houses a part of the life cycle of Saint Mark, the patron saint of Venice. The St. Mark cycle in this chapel consists of seven mosaic scenes: Saint Mark’s body being removed from the tomb, Saint Mark’s relics being carried away, the ship with Saint Mark’s relics being examined by the Muslims, the ship departing from Alexandria, Saint Mark saving the Venetians from shipwreck, the ship arriving in Venice, and finally, the reception of Saint Mark’s relics by the Venetian people. The Cappella di San Clemente’s cycle of mosaics ostentatiously displays the craftsmanship of the Venetian glassmakers as well as the artists. While the beauty of these mosaics speaks for itself, the beauty also speaks within political and religious representations to the idea of Venetian independence. The illustrious mosaic representation of the Saint Mark cycle, or Translatio, within the Cappella di San Clemente not only portrays a sense of artistic identity in the realm of aesthetic mastery, but also foments Venetian national identity. The specific representations of Saint Marks’ body being removed from the tomb, Saint Mark saving the Venetians from shipwreck, and the reception of Saint Mark’s relics by the Venetian people in the Basilica di San Marco appeal to the fancy of the proverbial heart with their golden luster and sheer grandiosity, but more importantly the mosaics work to legitimize and solidify Venetian nationalism within in the minds of her people.
The mosaic of St. Mark’s body being removed from the tomb is the first mosaic in the depiction of the St. Mark Translatio (e.g. figure 1). The scene depicts four men, the Venetian merchants Tribunus and Rusticus, as well as two Orthodox custodians, standing in the background of a haloed corpse, St. Mark, floating above a coffin. The two custodians, Theodorus the priest and Stauracius the monk, attired in long robes, tall hats, and wearing long, white beards, are placed at the head of St. Mark. The two Venetians, dressed less formally and wearing little to no beard, stand at the saint’s feet with their arms draped over as in reception. In her book, Art and Life in Renaissance Venice, Patricia Fortini Brown refers to this scene as a “naïve representation, characterized as the lifting of the body out of the sarcophagus” where the body “seems to float in midair” (33). She further criticizes that “the four figures holding the body are not bending over the coffin…but standing upright” (33). Brown focuses on realistic representation of art with a critical eye on how a modern day viewer would examine the piece. The artist’s misinterpretation of physics within this mosaic representation, Brown seems to intimate, causes a disconnect for the 21st century viewer to interpret as naivety. It cannot be argued that the representation fails to portray an active, physical event such as resuming a body. Yet, the representation of the floating body and the lack of effort by the grave robbers symbolizes more than it attempts to document. Symbolically, the mosaic functions to tell a story. The mosaic elicits a response in a way that a documentary approach could not. As Otto Demus explains in The Mosaic Decoration of San Marco Venice, the Translatio, “formed an essential part of the national myth of Venice” and “begins with an ample introduction calculated to prove the divine right of the venetians to the possession of the saint’s relics” (33). The mosaic’s ethereal quality illustrates Venice’s divine right to the relics twofold. The floating corpse suggests a willingness of St. Mark’s divine spirit to leave its entombment in Alexandria. Secondly, the effortlessness of the pallbearer’s struggle furthers the symbolism of St. Mark as looking for his true final resting place within Venice. These two otherworldly aspects of the mosaic function to incorporate faith, feeling, and fraternity. Further Thomas Dale remarks:
Following closely the Translatio text, the two merchants Tribunus and Rusticus are assisted by two Orthodox custodians, Theodore Presbyter and the monk Stauracius. Their presence helps justify the Venetian theft; after much discussion with Tribunus and Rusticus, the custodians agree to help the Venetians remove the relics to Venice to save them from profanation by the Saracens. (70)
Examining the relation between the Translatio text and the public representation within the mosaic, Dale speaks of justification and salvation. Venice’s justification and salvation are represented and legitimized as from the celestial judge of all Christianity, God. Sanctification by God, especially in an ancient Christian society, provides an unyielding defense for political motives. The justification and salvation of martyrium represented within the first mosaic in the St. Mark cycle begins a sequence of art propaganda of Venice’s own justification and salvation as a nation state.
The fifth mosaic in the St. Mark cycle of the Cappella di San Clemente depicts Saint Mark saving the Venice bound ship carrying his relics (e.g. see figure 2). Tall waves are shown lifting up the ship as it sails perilously close to the edge of a rocky shore. Two crew members are enveloped within the fallen sail cloth at the fore of the ship while Tribunus, also enfolded within the sail, stands a bit removed. Behind Tribunus, towards the aft of the ship lays Stauracius, the Orthodox monk from the first mosaic. Filling the middle ground between Tribunus and Stauracius is the spirit of Saint Mark. In this rendering, as opposed to the previous, St. Mark’s eyes are open and his attention, along with his hand is resting on Stauracius. In the midst of the impending doom, Saint Mark is bringing peace to the monk. Demus describes the intentions of the mosaic as representative of “the saint himself authorize[ing] the translation of his relics back to Italy” (30). Therefore, Venice’s possession of the relics is not enough for legitimacy. St. Mark’s role presented by this mosaic represents legitimacy to Venice’s claim. Whereas in the previous mosaic Saint Mark played a passive yet implied role in the removal of his relics, this mosaic presents an active intervention on behalf of Venice. Saint Mark, by the holy power that rests within him, oversees the safe return of his relics to the rightful resting place in Venice. By portraying the power of this godly spirit, “a Venetian predilection for divine sanction” (Demus 70) is clearly defined. If the holy Saint Mark himself chooses to have his relics in Venice, who should argue against it? By having the protective hand of Saint Mark looming over them, Venice could boast a divine investor and political sponsor. Demus provides further support:
The intention of the author of the program was to give the beholder the opportunity of accompanying the relics from their first resting place to their final destination and thus remove any doubts about the reality and completeness of the TRANSLATION, doubts that might have arisen in view of Alexandria’s claim to have retained the head of the saint or Reichenau’s claim to have abducted the relics from Venice. (71)
The mosaic of the shipwreck continues the Venetian myth propaganda path. Looking at the main focus of this mosaic, other than Saint Mark himself, the biggest idol within this mosaic is the ship. Venetians were synonymous with seafaring. Therefore, what better way to solidify the Venetian myth as fact than to use their own naval iconography? Demus explains, “it was this need for a convincing statement that led to the adoption of a certain objective realism in the rendering of naval matters, the material for which Venice could provide better than any other place” (71). Since the Venetians were world renowned for their mastery in naval affairs, instilling their patron Saint as overseer and divine protector of his own sea travel would immediately foster a sense of legitimacy in their claim to his relics. The representation of maritime autonomy linked to holy providence provides a metaphorical bridge to the political realm of Venice’s struggle for sovereignty. James McGregor, in his book Venice From the Ground UP, further solidifies this idea stating that this representation “assigns the saint a new role as city founder” and that “this transformation of the saint from apostle to city founder also redefines community and its political leadership” (62). The artist creates a Saint Mark who takes control of destiny and leads Venice to glory as heavenly ordained. Again, Saint Mark moves out of the passive role of patron saint and into founding father of the new Venice nation state. McGregor furthers his argument with a metaphor of Plymouth Rock, “this is the artist’s idea of the Rivoalto, the Plymouth Rock from which Venice will grow” (61). Just as the sea travelers who landed upon Plymouth founded a new nation, McGregor argues that this scene depicts the same for St. Mark and his crew with the Rivoalto. This metaphor connects with the 21st century audience, especially an American audience, as the similarities between the two republics are vast. Whereas an etched rock in Plymouth, Massachusetts legitimized the efforts of the seafaring, freedom seeking pilgrims, the mosaic representations works to legitimize the story of St. Mark.
The next mosaic in the cycle depicts the presentation of Saint Mark’s relics to the Venetian people (e.g. figure 3). The mosaic of the presentation depicts the juxtaposition of church and state, the pageantry associated with Venetian traditions. Interestingly, the focal point of the mosaic is not Saint Mark, nor a vessel containing his relics. In fact, Saint Mark does not make an appearance in any form. This last mosaic features more representations of individual people than any of the other two mosaics. The people who are depicted within this mosaic intimate a direct attempt by the artist to display political themes juxtaposed with religious values. Prominently figured in the center of the group of recipients, dressed in colorful albs, stands the patriarch Enrico Dandolo of Grado. Six bishops Caorle, Eraclea, Equilo, Malamocco, Olivolo, Torcello, surround the patriarch “who ceremoniously support the Dandolo’s hands, a gesture denoting his ecclesiastical authority” (Madden 38). Juxtaposed with the clergy are Doge Vitalle II Michiel, his judges, and a sword bearer. The two groups are clearly demarcated with by their appearance and garb. The clergy all wear the gold decorated cleric’s hats while the Doge and his staff wear similar hats, yet more demur in color. The albs of both groups share similar differences as the clergy is decorated in the symbolic trappings of their profession while the political representatives wear plain, blue, hooded robes. “When the Doge and the Venetian community are depicted in the Mark cycle of the south transept, they are second to the bishop, though close in authority, and taking part in a sacred rather than secular right. They are congregants rather than citizens" (McGregor 314). Clearly, the division between church and state is represented, but more importantly, these two separate entities, both having claims and motives for the relics, are shown together. The balance of power sways toward the scared as these are saintly relics, yet the overall fortuitousness benefits Venice as a nation. It is important to remember also that the Cappella di San Clemente was the Doge’s chapel. “In placing him in the mosaics next to St. Mark, indubitable symbol of the doge's power, the idea was to show everyone that patriarch and Doge coexisted peacefully in the doge's basilica” (Basilica di San Marco). This last mosaic, set against the other mosaics of Saint Mark, depicts the powers who wielded temporal authority over the saint’s relics. The glorification of the Doge’s role had to be kept in check to pacify the clergy. Not only did the relics belong to Venice and the Doge, but they also belonged to the powerful church. The division of church and state had to be delicately handled in order to proliferate the divine myth and secure the future of a sovereign Venice.
Once the upward gazing Basilica di San Marco visitor has traveled through the beauty and nationalism that the Cappella provides, he or she may wonder, “Why mosaics?” The choice of mosaic representation over a mural or other artistic rendering allowed Venice to visually manifest its nationalism within a medium inherent to Venice. What better way to showcase Venice’s national pride than to write it in the art that they were famous for? Brown asserts:
The mosaics of San Marco thus remained a living monument for the artists of Venice. They drew from them a subtle approach to color, attitudes about the physical craft of art, models for composition, a respect for surface, and perhaps most important of all, a way of perceiving and of representing light as a powerful revealer-and, at the same time, dissolver-of form. (33)
That the mosaics were a “living monument” meant they could function both as a story, as any art piece can, but also as a storyteller. The mosaic itself, not just the scenes depicted, has the innate ability to be part of the story because the craft is intrinsic to Venice. The use of light to reveal and dissolve manages to mesmerize and astound at the same time. “The gold background of the mosaics does not only give unity to the mosaics themselves but, in accordance with the oriental conception, has a precise symbolic value as the colour of the Divine, the image of that light which, for the theologians and Fathers of the mediaeval church, was God himself” (Basilica di San Marco). The lustrous effect of the gold background presents a common, saintly visage throughout the presentation of the mosaics possibly exemplifying the steadfast provision of God and his church. While the scenes in one’s life may change, the providence of God remains steady throughout. For Venice’s purposes of balancing the sacred with the secular, the story of Saint Mark infused in this golden divinity legitimizes the sacred myth. Demus explains, “The story of the Translatio was for Venice more than a legend; it was an integral part of the ideological foundation of the Venetian Church and State” (Demus 36). Therefore, the mosaics needed to not only be grandiose and awe inspiring, but also needed to be grounded in Venetian culture to maintain legitimacy. The use of glass mosaic art fomented the Translatio’s legitimatization by grounding the legend within an art medium synonymous with Venice.
In summary, the specific representations of the Translatio of Saint Mark including: Saint Mark’s body being removed from the tomb, Saint Mark saving the Venetians from shipwreck, and the reception of Saint Mark’s relics by the Venetian people, legitimize and solidify Venetian nationalism by appealing to the fancy of the Venetians’ proverbial hearts, with golden luster and sheer grandiosity as well as to their minds, with cultural iconography. Working within an art medium inherent to the national identity of Venice, the artists of the mosaics are creating fact from legend. By cementing mosaic representation of St. Mark’s posthumous travels from Alexandria to his rightful resting place in Venice, the artists worked to cement Venetian nationalism. In the mosaic of St. Mark’s relics being removed from the tomb, the representation of St. Mark’s corpse floating out of the grave portrays the saint’s willingness to leave Alexandria. The effortlessness to remove the body suggests divine intervention condoned this action. With the heavens seemingly on their side, Venice could boast their claim to St. Mark’s relics, as well as martyrium, was rightfully theirs. The mosaic of St. Mark saving the ship from shipwreck depicts St. Mark actively taking part to assure his relics are delivered to the Venetians. Since Venice was a world renowned naval authority, the use of Venice’s naval iconography further legitimized the St. Mark legend as well as fomented a sense of national pride. Recalling the story of the pilgrims landing at Plymouth, a present day visitor may connect with ideas of forming a nation and the relics that instill patriotic nostalgia. In the mosaic representation of St. Mark’s relics being presented to the Venetians, Saint Mark does not make an appearance. Instead, the focus is on the religious, political, and cultural factors of Venice. The idea of pageantry within Venetian culture is displayed as the church and state both form a receiving procession. The depiction of both the clerics and the laity presents an idea of separate, but equal effect to the political and religious rights of the relics. All of the mosaics within the Cappella Di San Clemente present the visitor with the golden warmth and glittering beauty of the art form. The Saint Mark cycle of mosaics ostentatiously displays the craftsmanship of the Venetian glassmakers as well as the artists. While the beauty of these mosaics speaks for itself, the beauty also speaks in political and religious representations to the idea of Venetian independence. The illustrious mosaic representation of the Saint Mark cycle, in the Basilica di San Marco not only portray a sense of artistic identity in the realm of aesthetic mastery, but more importantly these mosaics art pieces encourage Venetian national identity. To answer William Shakespeare’s question, “tell me where is fancy bred, or in the heart or in the head?” the visitor to the Basilica di San Marco may say, “both.”
Bibliography
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Dale, Thomas E.A. "Inventing a Sacred Past: Pictorial Narratives of St. Mark the Evangelist in Aquileia and Venice, Ca. 1000-1300." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 48 (1994): 53-104. JSTOR. Web. 5 Nov. 2011.
Demus, Otto. The Mosaic Decoration of San Marco Venice. Chicago U.a.: Univ. of Chicago, 1988. Print.
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